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Macroinvertebrates
Diptera
EOL Text
Insects that are True Flies have their name in two parts: House Fly, Flower Fly, etc. But some other kinds of insects are called "flies" even though they aren't related to the True Flies. They should have the "fly" part of their name attached to the previous part. For example: Dragonfly, Damselfly.
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Diptera/ |
Order Diptera include true flies, black flies, midges, fruit flies, mosquitoes, blow flies, and house flies. True Flies can be found throughout the world except for Antarctica. Diptera can be found in the fossil record as far back as the Upper Triassic. Flies undergo complete metamorphosis. Larvae hatch almost immediately after the eggs are laid by a female. Fly larvae are commonly known as maggots. Maggots lack legs and mostly consume decaying organic matter. They pupate inside silk cocoons. Almost all of the adult flies have functional wings and halteres, which balance the flies when they fly. The adults do not live more than a few days and are mainly focused on reproduction. They feed on sap, blood, or nectar. Mosquitoe larvae, wrigglers, are aquatic and feed on algae. The pupae are aquatic and breathe at the surface of the water. Adult mosquitoes are usually active at night and rarely go farther than a few hundred yards of where they emerged from their pupa.
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Rights holder/Author | Rhianna Hruska, Rhianna Hruska |
Source | No source database. |
Flies, gnats, maggots, midges, mosquitoes, keds, bots, etc. are all common names for members of the order Diptera. This diversity of names documents the importance of the group to man and reflects the range of organisms in the order. The order is one of the four largest groups of living organisms. There are more known flies than vertebrates. These insects are a major component of virtually all non-marine ecosystems. Only the cold arctic and antarctic ice caps are without flies. The economic importance of the group is immense. One need only consider the ability of flies to transmit diseases. Mosquitoes and black flies are responsible for more human suffering and death than any other group of organisms except for the transmitted pathogens and man! Flies also destroy our food, especially grains and fruits. On the positive side of the ledger, outside their obviously essential roles in maintaining our ecosystem, flies are of little direct benefit to man. Some are important as experimental animals (Drosophila) and biological control agents of weeds and other insects. Others are crucial in helping to solve crimes or in pollinating plants. Without Diptera there would be, for example, no chocolate!
Some 150,000 different kinds of flies (Order Diptera, Class Insecta, Phylum Arthropoda) are now known and estimates are that there may be more than 1,000,000 species living today. These species are classified into 188 families and some 10,000 genera. Of these, some 3,125 species are known only from fossils, the oldest of which, a limoniid crane fly, is some 225 MILLION years old (Upper Triassic (Carnian)).
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Rights holder/Author | Bob Corrigan, Bob Corrigan |
Source | http://diptera.myspecies.info/diptera/content/introduction-order-diptera |
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / pathogen
Batkoa apiculata infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Batkoa papillata infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Conidiobolus thromboides infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / parasitoid
solitary (usually) stroma of Cordyceps forquignonii is parasitoid of dead, on ground Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crabro cribrarius stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crabro peltarius stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus binotatus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus capitosus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus exiguus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus megacephalus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus pusillus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus quadrimaculatus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Crossocerus wesmaeli stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Cylindrodendrum anamorph of Cylindrodendrum suffultum infects pupa of Diptera
Fungus / feeder
Diptera feeds on spore mass of fruitbody of Phallus hadriani
Plant / pollenated
adult of Diptera pollenates or fertilises flower of Dactylorhiza maculata
Fungus / gall
larva of Diptera causes galls on Daedalea quercina
Fungus / gall
larva of Diptera causes galls on fruitbody of Conocybe
Animal / predator
leaf of Drosera rotundifolia is predator of Diptera
Other: major host/prey
Animal / predator
nymph of Dryophilocoris flavoquadrimaculatus is predator of Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius borealis stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius cavifrons stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius cephalotes stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius continuus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius dives stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius lapidarius stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius lituratus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius rubicola stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius ruficornis stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Ectemnius sexcinctus stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Entomophthora culicis infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Entomophthora muscae infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
pure white to grey or rarely green, shaggy rhizoids of Erynia conica infects adult of Diptera
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Animal / pathogen
Erynia gracilis infects live adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Erynia radicans infects live Diptera
Animal / pathogen
white to grey swollen rhizoids of Erynia rhizospora infects white to grey swollen rhizoids of adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Furia americana infects adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Furia montana infects adult of Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Lindenius albilabris stocks nest with Diptera
Animal / predator
nymph of Loricula elegantula is predator of larva of Diptera
Animal / predator
nymph of Orthotylus tenellus is predator of Diptera
Animal / predator / stocks nest with
female of Oxybelus uniglumis stocks nest with larva of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
few, large, white or greenish, disk-ended rhizoids of Pandora dipterigena infects adult of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Pandora echinospora infects adult of Diptera
Animal / predator
leaf of Pinguicula vulgaris is predator of adult of Diptera
Other: major host/prey
Animal / associate
synnematum of Polycephalomyces anamorph of Polycephalomyces ramosus is associated with Diptera
Other: major host/prey
Animal / predator
nymph of Reduvius personatus is predator of Diptera
Animal / parasite
Tolypocladium anamorph of Tolypocladium cylindrosporum parasitises live larva of Diptera
Animal / parasitoid
perithecium of Torrubiella albotomentosa is parasitoid of pupa of Diptera
Animal / pathogen
Zoophthora radicans infects live adult of Diptera
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Rights holder/Author | BioImages, BioImages - the Virtual Fieldguide (UK) |
Source | http://www.bioimages.org.uk/html/Diptera.htm |
Dipterans are among the most common flower visitors and many are known to pollinate. Though often discounted as inefficient pollinators, some researchers have suggested that the efficiency of pollinating flies, midges, and mosquitoes exceeds that of bees in some cases. Further, dipterans appear to be crucial for the pollination of flowers in alpine habitats. In general, however, little is known about the importance of pollination by dipterans, their conservation status, how they may interact with other pollinators, and how such interactions may change if populations of sympatric pollinators decline.
Dipteran pollinators include mosquitoes, such as those of the genus Aedes, which pollinate the blunt-leaved bog orchid, Habenaria obtusata (Family: Orchidaceae), which is considered a sensitive species in parts of the northwestern United States.
Chocolate lovers may be more impressed by another example of pollination by dipterans: biting midges (or "no-see-ums") and gall midges in the Ceratopogonoidae and Cecidomyiidae families, respectively, are the only known pollinators of cacao trees, which produce the beans from which chocolate is made.
In addition to their association with cacao trees, gall midges (Contarinia spp.) form a pollination mutualism with the Malaysian tree, chempedak (Artocarpus integer), which is cultivated commercially in southeast Asia for its edible fruit. This mutualism is unusual in that it is mediated by a fungus (Choanephoraceae , Choanephora spp.). The fungus infects the tree's male inflorescences and the gall midge feeds on the fungal mycelia and oviposits on the inflorescence. When the midge larvae hatch, they feed on the mycelia and pupate in the inflorescence. Pollination occurs because the midges are also attracted to the female inflorescences, possibly due to olfactory cues.
Some flies are imporant pollinators. Many fly larvae are part of the natural 'clean-up squad', helping get rid of dung and dead animals. Flies are important food sources for many other animals.
Ecosystem Impact: pollinates; biodegradation
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Diptera/ |
The Zurqui All-Diptera Biodiversity Inventory (ZADBI), is a 3-year National Science Foundation (NSF) grant to estimate fly biodiversity within a Costa Rican cloud forest. This effort is based on an international collaboration of fly experts, the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles and the Costa Rican Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio). INBio is also an EOL content partner. ZADBI scientists anticipate the discovery of at least 3,000 species, most of which will be new.
This project will contribute species images, information and educational resources to the Encyclopedia of Life.
Learn more about ZADBI Diptera Families on EOL
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Rights holder/Author | Tracy Barbaro, Tracy Barbaro |
Source | No source database. |
Adult flies avoid predators with their speed and alertness. Also, many flies mimic stinging insects such as wasps or bees, so predators will avoid them. Larvae often live in places that are hard to reach.
Known Predators:
- Rodentia (eat pupae)
- Soricidae (larvae and pupae)
- Talpidae (larvae and pupae)
- Aves
- Anura (mostly adult flies)
- Anura (mostly adult flies)
- Araneae
- Formicidae
- Hymenoptera
- other Diptera
- Heteroptera
- Carabidae (larvae and pupae)
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2012, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Diptera/ |
Diptera (Dipteran larvae) is prey of:
Lagopus
Plectrophenax nivalis
Calidris maritima
Araneae
Stercorarius
Larus hyperboreus
Somateria
Gavia stellata
Clangula hyemalis
Spermophilus tridecemlineatus
Bartramia longicauda
Sturnella neglecta
Pooecetes gramineus
Spizella passerina
Spizella pallida
Eremophila alpestris
Corvus
Anura
Thamnophis
Amia calva
Lepisosteidae
Esox
Ardeidae
Threskiornithidae
Passerina cyanea
Hylocichla mustelina
Arachnida
Geothlypis trichas
Picoides pubescens
Myiarchus
Baeolophus bicolor
Vireo olivaceus
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Rhinogobius flumineus
Cobitis biwae
Cottus pollux
Maroco jouyi
Oncorhynchus rhodurus
Gomphus
Actinopterygii
Aves
Leucosticte atrata
Anthus spinoletta
Coleoptera
Scolopacidae
Tyrannidae
Apodidae
Scorpiones
Geococcyx velox
Clarias gariepinus
Alestes imberi
Marcusenios macrolepidotus
Mormyrus longirostris
Haplochromis darlingi
Tilapia rendalli
Hydrocynus vittatus
Ocypode
Charadriiformes
Brachystosternus
Tropidurus
Chiroptera
Hirundinidae
Chordeiles
Geositta
Calcarius mccownii
Calcarius ornatus
Calamospiza melanocorys
Asilidae
Peromyscus maniculatus
Orthoptera
Conomyrma bicolor
Pheidole
Novomessor cockerelli
Crematogaster clara
Iridomyrmex pruinosum
Salvelinus fontinalis
Eucalia inconstans
Salmo salar
Phoxinus phoxinus
Otus nudipes
Amphisbaena caeca
Herpestes auropunctatus
Eleutherodactylus coqui
Eleutherodactylus richmondi
Eleutherodactylus portoricensis
Eleutherodactylus wightmanae
Eleutherodactylus eneidae
Eleutherodactylus hedricki
Todus mexicanus
Anolis cuvieri
Anolis evermanni
Anolis stratulus
Anolis gundlachi
Leptodactylus albilabris
Myiarchus antillarum
Vireo latimeri
Icterus dominicensis
Vireo altiloquus
Seiurus motacilla
Sphaerodactylus klauberi
Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
Diploglossus pleei
Chlorostilbon maugeus
Anthracothorax viridis
Parula americana
Dendroica caerulescens
Dendroica discolor
Setophaga ruticilla
Opiliones
Odonata
Gonatista grisea
Hymenoptera
Margarops fuscatus
Tyrannus dominicensis
Dendroica petechia
Loxigilla noctis
Trochilidae
Coereba flaveola
Anolis gingivinus
Anolis pogus
Hemiptera
Chilopoda
Platichthys flesus
Based on studies in:
Norway: Spitsbergen (Coastal)
Canada: Manitoba (Grassland)
USA: Alaska (Tundra)
USA: Arizona, Sonora Desert (Desert or dune)
Puerto Rico, El Verde (Rainforest)
USA: Montana (Tundra)
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)
USA: Florida, South Florida (Swamp)
USA: Illinois (Forest)
Japan (River)
USA: Iowa, Mississippi River (River)
Uganda (Lake or pond)
Africa, Lake McIlwaine (Lake or pond)
Peru (Coastal)
USA: Texas, Franklin Mtns (Carrion substrate)
Canada: Ontario, Mad River (River)
Wales, Dee River (River)
Scotland (Estuarine)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- L. D. Harris and G. B. Bowman, Vertebrate predator subsystem. In: Grasslands, Systems Analysis and Man, A. I. Breymeyer and G. M. Van Dyne, Eds. (International Biological Programme Series, no. 19, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1980), pp. 591-
- A. C. Twomey, The bird population of an elm-maple forest with special reference to aspection, territorialism, and coactions, Ecol. Monogr. 15(2):175-205, from p. 202 (1945).
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Further contributions to the ecology of Spitzbergen, J. Ecol. 16:193-268, from p. 211 (1928).
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Further contributions to the ecology of Spitzbergen, J. Ecol. 16:193-268, from p. 217 (1928).
- C. A. Carlson, Summer bottom fauna of the Mississippi River, above Dam 19, Keokuk, Iowa, Ecology 49(1):162-168, from p. 167 (1968).
- M. J. Burgis, I. G. Dunn, G. G. Ganf, L. M. McGowan and A. B. Viner, Lake George, Uganda: Studies on a tropical freshwater ecosystem. In: Productivity Problems of Freshwaters, Z. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Ilkowska, Eds. (Polish Scientific, Warsaw, 1972), p
- J. Brown, Ecological investigations of the Tundra biome in the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska, Special Report, no. 2, Biol. Pap. Univ. Alaska (1975), from p. xiv.
- B. E. Marshall, The fish of Lake McIlwaine. In Lake McIlwaine: the eutrophication and recovery of a tropical man-made lake (J. A. Thornton, Ed.) Vol 49 Monographia Biologicae, D. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp. 156-188, from p. 180 (1982).
- H. W. Koepcke and M. Koepcke, Sobre el proceso de transformacion de la materia organica en las playas arenosas marinas del Peru. Publ. Univ. Nac. Mayer San Marcos, Zoologie Serie A, No. 8, from p. 24 (1952).
- W. E. Ricker, 1934. An ecological classification of certain Ontario streams. Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Serv. 37, Publ. Ontario Fish. Res. Lab. 49:7-114, from pp. 78, 89.
- R. M. Badcock, 1949. Studies in stream life in tributaries of the Welsh Dee. J. Anim. Ecol. 18:193-208, from pp. 202-206 and Price, P. W., 1984, Insect Ecology, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley, p. 23
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Contributions to the ecology of Spitsbergen and Bear Island, J. Ecol. 11:214-286, from p. 232 (1923).
- M. Tsuda, Interim results of the Yoshino River productivity survey, especially on benthic animals. In: Productivity Problems of Freshwaters, Z. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Ilkowska, Eds. (Polish Scientific, Warsaw, 1972), pp. 827-841, from p. 839.
- L. D. Harris and L. Paur, A quantitative food web analysis of a shortgrass community, Technical Report No. 154, Grassland Biome. U.S. International Biological Program (1972), from p. 17.
- D. L. Pattie and N. A. M. Verbeek, Alpine birds of the Beartooth Mountains, Condor 68:167-176 (1966); Alpine mammals of the Beartooth Mountains, Northwest Sci. 41(3):110-117 (1967).
- P. G. Howes, The Giant Cactus Forest and Its World: A Brief Biology of the Giant Cactus Forest of Our American Southwest (Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, New York; Little, Brown, Boston; 1954), from pp. 222-239, from p. 227.
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 383 (1930).
- K. Schoenly and W. Reid, 1983. Community structure of carrion arthropods in the Chihuahuan Desert. J. Arid Environ. 6:253-263, from pp. 256-58 & unpub. material.
- Waide RB, Reagan WB (eds) (1996) The food web of a tropical rainforest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
- Hall SJ, Raffaelli D (1991) Food-web patterns: lessons from a species-rich web. J Anim Ecol 60:823842
- Huxham M, Beany S, Raffaelli D (1996) Do parasites reduce the chances of triangulation in a real food web? Oikos 76:284300
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |
Diptera (Dipteran larvae) preys on:
dead plants
algae
Helianthus
Agropyron
Stipa
humus
Plectoptera
Odonata
Hemiptera
sap and plant juices
lichens
Bryophyta
phanerogams
Oligochaeta
Chironomidae
zooplankton
Asplanchna
Mesocyclops
alpine vegetation
willows
sedges
grasses
detritus
fungi
bacteria
carcass
Aves
Artemisia frigida
Gutierrezia
Ratibida columnifera
Mirabilis
Ericameria nauseosa
Cleome serrulata
Liatris punctata
Descurainia pinnata
Atriplex canescens
Elymus elymoides
Picradeniopsis oppositifolia
Opuntia macrorhiza
Thelesperma filifolium
Senecio vulgaris
Margarops fuscatus
Coleoptera
Hymenoptera
Orthoptera
Amazona vittata
Isoptera
Auchenorrhyncha
Sternorrhyncha
Lepidoptera
Herpestes auropunctatus
Eleutherodactylus coqui
Eleutherodactylus richmondi
Eleutherodactylus portoricensis
Eleutherodactylus wightmanae
Eleutherodactylus eneidae
Eleutherodactylus hedricki
Melanerpes portoricensis
Todus mexicanus
Mimocichla plumbea
Anolis cuvieri
Anolis evermanni
Anolis stratulus
Anolis gundlachi
Alsophis portoricensis
Leptodactylus albilabris
Myiarchus antillarum
Vireo latimeri
Nesospingus speculiferus
Icterus dominicensis
Vireo altiloquus
Seiurus aurocapillus
Seiurus motacilla
Rattus rattus
Bufo marinus
Chlorostilbon maugeus
Anthracothorax viridis
Mniotilta varia
Parula americana
Dendroica tigrina
Dendroica caerulescens
Dendroica discolor
Dendroica angelae
Setophaga ruticilla
Coereba flaveola
Loxigilla portoricensis
Eptesicus fuscus
Lasiurus borealis
Pteronotus parnelli
Spindalis zena
Diplopoda
Artibeus jamaicensis
Brachyphylla cavernarum
Erophylla sezekorni
Monophyllus redmani
Stenoderma rufum
Columba squamosa
Geotrygon montana
Euphonia musica
Phasmatidae
live leaves
sap
roots
pollen
nectar
fruit
seeds
flowers
fruit and seeds
nectar and floral
Collembola
Acari
leaves
POM
Based on studies in:
Norway: Spitsbergen (Coastal)
USA: Illinois (Forest)
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)
New Zealand (Grassland)
Japan (River)
Uganda (Lake or pond)
Africa, Lake McIlwaine (Lake or pond)
Puerto Rico, El Verde (Rainforest)
Canada: Manitoba (Grassland)
USA: Florida, South Florida (Swamp)
USA: Montana (Tundra)
USA: Iowa, Mississippi River (River)
Scotland (Estuarine)
USA: Alaska (Tundra)
Peru (Coastal)
USA: Arizona, Sonora Desert (Desert or dune)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- L. D. Harris and G. B. Bowman, Vertebrate predator subsystem. In: Grasslands, Systems Analysis and Man, A. I. Breymeyer and G. M. Van Dyne, Eds. (International Biological Programme Series, no. 19, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England, 1980), pp. 591-
- A. C. Twomey, The bird population of an elm-maple forest with special reference to aspection, territorialism, and coactions, Ecol. Monogr. 15(2):175-205, from p. 202 (1945).
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Further contributions to the ecology of Spitzbergen, J. Ecol. 16:193-268, from p. 211 (1928).
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Further contributions to the ecology of Spitzbergen, J. Ecol. 16:193-268, from p. 217 (1928).
- C. A. Carlson, Summer bottom fauna of the Mississippi River, above Dam 19, Keokuk, Iowa, Ecology 49(1):162-168, from p. 167 (1968).
- M. J. Burgis, I. G. Dunn, G. G. Ganf, L. M. McGowan and A. B. Viner, Lake George, Uganda: Studies on a tropical freshwater ecosystem. In: Productivity Problems of Freshwaters, Z. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Ilkowska, Eds. (Polish Scientific, Warsaw, 1972), p
- J. Brown, Ecological investigations of the Tundra biome in the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska, Special Report, no. 2, Biol. Pap. Univ. Alaska (1975), from p. xiv.
- B. E. Marshall, The fish of Lake McIlwaine. In Lake McIlwaine: the eutrophication and recovery of a tropical man-made lake (J. A. Thornton, Ed.) Vol 49 Monographia Biologicae, D. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, pp. 156-188, from p. 180 (1982).
- H. W. Koepcke and M. Koepcke, Sobre el proceso de transformacion de la materia organica en las playas arenosas marinas del Peru. Publ. Univ. Nac. Mayer San Marcos, Zoologie Serie A, No. 8, from p. 24 (1952).
- K. Paviour-Smith, The biotic community of a salt meadow in New Zealand, Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. 83(3):525-554, from p. 542 (1956).
- V. S. Summerhayes and C. S. Elton, Contributions to the ecology of Spitsbergen and Bear Island, J. Ecol. 11:214-286, from p. 232 (1923).
- M. Tsuda, Interim results of the Yoshino River productivity survey, especially on benthic animals. In: Productivity Problems of Freshwaters, Z. Kajak and A. Hillbricht-Ilkowska, Eds. (Polish Scientific, Warsaw, 1972), pp. 827-841, from p. 839.
- L. D. Harris and L. Paur, A quantitative food web analysis of a shortgrass community, Technical Report No. 154, Grassland Biome. U.S. International Biological Program (1972), from p. 17.
- D. L. Pattie and N. A. M. Verbeek, Alpine birds of the Beartooth Mountains, Condor 68:167-176 (1966); Alpine mammals of the Beartooth Mountains, Northwest Sci. 41(3):110-117 (1967).
- P. G. Howes, The Giant Cactus Forest and Its World: A Brief Biology of the Giant Cactus Forest of Our American Southwest (Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, New York; Little, Brown, Boston; 1954), from pp. 222-239, from p. 227.
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 383 (1930).
- Waide RB, Reagan WB (eds) (1996) The food web of a tropical rainforest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
- Hall SJ, Raffaelli D (1991) Food-web patterns: lessons from a species-rich web. J Anim Ecol 60:823842
- Huxham M, Beany S, Raffaelli D (1996) Do parasites reduce the chances of triangulation in a real food web? Oikos 76:284300
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |